Aiou MBA: Auditing Solved Assignment

What is the importance of Auditing for the business profession?

Financial statements of companies are very useful in business profession and the following people or group of people are likely to want to see and use these:

Actual or Potentially owners or shareholders, lenders or debenture holders, employees, customers and suppliers.
People who advise the above accountants; stockbrokers; credit rating agencies; financial journalists; trade unions; statisticians.
Competitors and people interested in mergers, amalgamations and takeovers.
The government, including the tax authorities, departments concerned with price control, consumer protection, and the control and regulation of business.
The public, including those who are interested in consumer protection, environmental protection, and political and other pressure groups.
Regulatory organizations.

All these people must be sure that the financial statements can be relied upon. The problem, which has always existed when managers report to owners is “Can the owners believe the report?

The report may

Contain errors
Not disclose fraud
Be inadvertently misleading
Be deliberately misleading
Fail to disclose relevant information
Fail to conform to regulations

The solution to this problem of credibility in reports and accounts lies in appointing an independent person called an auditor to investigate the report and report on his findings.

A further point is that modern companies can be very large with multi-national activities. The preparation of the accounts of such groups is a very complex operation involving the bringing together and summarizing of accounts of subsidiaries with differing conventions, legal systems and accounting and control systems. The examination of such accounts by independent experts trained in the assessment of financial information is of benefit to those who control and operate such organizations as well as to owners and outsiders.

Many financial statements must conform to statutory or other requirements. The most notable is that all company accounts have to conform to the requirements of the Companies Ordinance, 1984.

The primary aim of auditing is to enable the auditor to say, “these accounts show a true and fair view” or, of course, to say that they do not. The objects of an auditing are:

Primary

To produce a report by the auditor of his opinion of the truth and fairness of financial statements so that any person reading and using them can have belief in them.

Subsidiary

To detect errors and fraud
To prevent errors and fraud by the deterrent and moral effect of the audit
To provide spin-off effects. The auditor will be able to assist his clients with accounting, systems, taxation, financial, and other problems.

What factors are considered by an auditor in developing an audit plan? Explain

It is of great importance that an audit is planned in advance because:

The intended means of achieving the audit objectives must be established;
The audit can be controlled and directed.
Attention can be focused on the critical and high risk areas;
The work can then be completed economically and to time scale requirements.

The following are the matters to be taken into account and the preparation of an audit plan:

Matters to take into account

The work to be performed in addition to the audit.
Reviewing last year’s working papers.
Changes in legislation or auditing or accounting practice.
Analytical review of management accounts, consulting with management.
Changes in the business or its management or ownership.
Changes in systems or accounting procedures.
Timing measurements.
Extent of preparation by the client of analyses and summaries.
Use of internal audit.
Degree of reliance on internal controls.
Joint auditors if any.
Rotational‑ testing.
Liaison with the audit committee.

The general strategy will be directed toward the following matters:

Terms of engagement. Work to be done ‑ audit, precise accounting work to be done for client, tax. Etc., letters to be sent ‑ letter of weakness etc, reports to third parties e.g. regulatory authorities;
The client and its background. History, products, locations, especially noting factors like a new managing director, a new computer, a new product.
Important figures and ratios. From previous years and if available, from management and draft accounts.
Audit risk areas. These might include stock, work in progress, or dealings with a company under common ownership.
The effect of information technology on the audit.
Extent of involvement of internal audit.
Requirement for involvement of specialists. These may be from within the audit firm e.g. computer audit or rarely external specialists.
Setting of materiality levels.
Client assistance. Assistance from the client may be required in providing documents and analyses, providing computer time, arranging visits to branches.
The audit approach. The extent of reliance on internal control, the use of substantive tests and analytical review procedures.
Timetable. Dates of interim, year end and final audits and of dead lines to meet e.g. AGM of company.
Staffing requirement.
Budget and fee.
The operating style (e.g. direction from the top or disseminated decision making) and control consciousness of directors and management.
Possibilities of error or fraud.
Involvement With subsidiaries and their auditors, branches, divisions and other components of the audit assignment.
Regulatory requirements (especially important in some types of company e.g. those in financial services.
Going concern issues.

Explain different situations of professional misconduct in relation to Chartered Accountants in practice.

Professional accountants are required to observe proper standards of professional conduct whether or not the standards required are written in the rules or are unwritten. They are specifically required to refrain from misconduct, which is difficult to define precisely but which includes any act or default, which is likely to bring discredit on himself, his professional body or the profession generally.

Several general points can be made:

Professional independence is exceedingly important. This is very much an attitude of mind rather than a set of rules.
Integrity is vital. Synonyms for integrity include honesty, uprightness, probity, rectitude, and moral soundness.
Accountants must not only be people of integrity and independence; they must also be seen to be so. Any interest (e.g. owning shares in a client company) which might diminish an accountant's objectivity of approach or which might appear to others, must be avoided.
When an accountant has ethical difficulties or is unsure of what course of conduct to follow, he should consult his professional body or take legal advice. If in doubt always seek advice.

Points to note:

The ethical codes are in some areas mandatory.
In some areas they give guidance only. For example in the independence ethical guide, the 15% fees rule is for guidance only client giving 10% of gross fees may influence an auditor who fears the loss of income if he loses the client.
In all these ethical matters an accountant must not only behave correctly, he must also be seen to be behaving correctly.
These matters are occasionally tested.
Ethics are taken very seriously by professional accountants.
Professional accountants are not allowed to give investment advice or conduct investment business unless they are authorized to do so.
Auditors become privy to all sorts of information in the course of their work. Auditor and their staff must regard all such information as totally privileged and not disclose it to third parties except in circumstances where there is a legal right or duty to disclose it. They may not also use such information for personal gain, e.g. by insider trading.
Partners and staff of audit firms can become so familiar with the management or staff of a client company that they lose their objectivity. This must be avoided perhaps by rotating the partners and staff involved.
Independence is a big, issue at the time of writing and the practice of audit firms performing other services for their audit clients has come into some criticism. Warnings are made in the, ethical guides of the professional bodies of the risks to objectivity in performing these services but these all fall a long way short of prohibition. The real question is whether an audit firm can offer a totally dispassionate opinion if it and/or an associated firm are supplying services like:
Bookkeeping
Preparing the annual accounts
Taxation
Advice on company secretarial matters
Management consultancy
Obtaining staff
Selecting computer systems
Litigation support
Corporate financial advice e.g. on capital raising or takeovers
In a particular situation an auditor may well feel, that he or she is a professional person and is quite capable of giving an independent audit opinion even though:
The fee for the opinion is fixed by the directors
The directors can engineer a change of auditor if they wish the senior conducting the audit prepared the final accounts the firm advised the firm on the choice of a computer firm for the supply of new hardware and software
The firm investigated a company which the client company purchased the firm advised the client on a complex scheme for tax avoidance.

What are the objectives of internal control? Explain various types of internal control.

Internal control is defined as the whole system of controls, financial and otherwise, established by the management in order to carry on the business of the enterprise in an orderly and efficient manner, ensure adherence to management policies, safeguard the assets and secure as far as possible the completeness and accuracy of the records.

OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL CONTROL

If we look into the definition of the internal control, it will find out that the following are objectives of internal control.

Internal control generally

To carry on the business in an orderly and efficient manner, to ensure adherence to management policies, safeguard its assets, and secure the accuracy and reliability of the records.

Cash and cheques received by post

To ensure that all cash and cheques received by post are accounted for and accurately recorded in the books.
To ensure all such receipts are promptly and instantly deposited in the bank.

Cash sales and collections

To ensure that all cash, to which the enterprise is entitled, is received.
To ensure that all such cash is properly accounted for and entered in the records.
To ensure that all such cash is promptly and instantly deposited.

Payments into bank

To ensure that all cash and cheques received are banked intact.
To ensure that all cash and cheques received are banked without delay at prescribed intervals, preferably daily.
To ensure that all cash and cheques received are accounted for and recorded accurately.

Cash balances

To prevent misappropriation of cash balances.
To prevent unauthorized cash payments.

Bank balances

To prevent misappropriation of bank balances.
To prevent teeming and lading.

Cheque payments

To prevent unauthorized payments being made from bank accounts.

Wages and salaries

To ensure that wages and salaries are paid only to actual employees at authorized rates of pay.
To ensure that all wages and salaries are computed in accordance with records of work performed whether in respect of time, output, sales made or other criteria.
To ensure that payrolls are correctly calculated.
To ensure that payments are made only to the correct employees.
To ensure that payrolls deductions are correctly accounted for and paid over to the appropriate third parities.
To ensure that all transactions are correctly recorded in the books of account.

Purchases and trade creditors

To ensure that goods and services are only ordered in the quantity, of the quality, and at the best terms available after appropriate requisition and approval.

THE TYPES OF INTERNAL CONTROL INCLUDE

Organization

An enterprise should have a plan of organization which should define and allocate responsibilities, every function should be in the charge of a specified person who might be called the responsible official. Thus the keeping of petty cash should be entrusted to a particular person who is then responsible for that function.

Segregation of duties

No one person should be responsible for the recording and processing of a complete transaction.

Physical controls

This concerns physical custody of assets and involves procedures designed to limit access to authorized personnel only.

Authorization and Approval

All transactions should require authorization or approval by an appropriate person. The limits to these authorizations should be specified.

Arithmetic and Accounting

This check that the transactions have been authorized, that they are all included and that they are correctly recorded and accurately processed.

Personnel

Procedure should be designed to ensure that personnel operating a system are competent and motivated to carry out the tasks assigned to them, as the proper functioning of a system depends upon the competence and integrity of the operating personnel.

Supervision

All actions by all levels of staff should be supervised. The responsibility for supervision should be clearly laid down and communicated to the person being supervised.

Management controls

These are controls, exercised by management which are outside and over and able the day to day routine of the system.

Acknowledgement of performance

Persons performing data processing operations should acknowledge their activities by means of signatures, initials, rubber stamps, etc.

Budgeting

A common technique used in business is the use of budgets, which can be defined as quantitative plans of action. Budgets having been agreed, can be compared with actual turn out and differences investigated.

Differentiate between internal control and internal audit.

INTERNAL CONTROL

The control environment is a new concept in auditing. Internal controls have limitations.

Limitations of internal control

Internal controls are essential features of any organization that is run efficiently. However it is important to realize (especially for art auditor) that internal controls have inherent limitations that include:
A requirement that the cost of an internal control is not disproportionate to the potential loss that may result from its absence.
Internal controls tend to be directed at routine transactions. The one‑off or unusual transaction tends not to be the subject of internal control
Potential human error caused by stress of workload, alcohol, carelessness, distraction, mistakes of judgment, cussedness, and the misunderstanding of instructions
The possibility of circumvention of controls either alone or through collusion with parties outside or inside the entity abuse of' responsibility
Management override of controls
Fraud
Changes in environment making controls inadequate
Human cleverness ‑ however secure the computer code designed to prevent access, there is, always some hacker who get in.
Requires that auditors’ must always perform some substantive tests of material items as well as relying on internal controls. The inherent limitations of internal controls are the reason.

INTERNAL AUDITING

Internal auditing is a fast growing and important activity. Internal auditing has a definition.

The essential elements of an internal audit function are: independence, staffing, training; relationships, due care, planning, controlling, recording, systems controls, evidence and reporting.

There are differences between internal and external audits in terms of: scope, approach, responsibility and persons to report to. The work of internal auditor's very often includes checking documents. Internal auditing is now considered a major discipline and there are many textbooks on the subject. It is important that Internal Audit report to the highest level, preferably the Board or an audit committee. The guideline has much to say on the objectivity, the staffing and the training of internal auditors and on planning, control and reporting. These ideas are very similar to those of guidelines for external audit. The guideline gives a very good summary of the stages in a systems audit as:

Identify the system, parameters (e.g. the details of a system for identifying bad credit risks before sales)
Determine the control objectives (e.g. to prevent sales to bad credit risks)
Identify expected controls to meet control objectives (e.g. inspection of sales ledger account before granting credit to existing customer)
Review the system against expected controls (e.g. is inspection of the sales ledger account included in the system)
Test the controls designed into the system against control objectives (e.g. are the sales ledger inspections and other controls adequate [or alternatively too stiff] to prevent sales to bad risks)
Test the actual controls for effectiveness against control objectives
Test the operation of controls in practice
Give an opinion based on audit objectives as to whether the system provides an adequate basis for effective control and whether it is properly operated in practice.

Explain the main features of internal control system in the following functions of purchases and trade creditors:

BUYING
RECEIPTS OF GOODS
ACCOUNTING FOR PURCHASES
PAYMENT OF OUTSTANDING BALANCES

The main features of internal control system in the above mentioned functions of purchases and trade creditors are:

Objectives

To ensure that goods and services are only ordered in the quantity, of the quality, and at the best terms available after appropriate requisition and approval.
To ensure that goods and services received are inspected and only acceptable items are accepted.
To ensure that all invoices are checked against authorized orders and receipt of the subject matter in good condition.
To ensure that all goods and services invoiced are properly recorded in the books.

Measures

There should be procedures for the requisitioning of goods and services, only by specified personnel on specified forms with space for acknowledgement of performance.
Order forms should be pre-numbered and kept, in safe custody. Issue of blank order form, books should be controlled and recorded.
Order procedures should include requirements for obtaining tenders, estimates or competitive bids.
Sequence checks of order forms should be performed regularly by a senior official and missing items investigated.
All goods received should be recorded on goods received notes (preferably renumbered) or in a special book.
All goods should be inspected for condition and agreement with order and counted on receipt. The inspection should be acknowledged., Procedures for dealing with rejected goods or services should include the creation of debit notes (pre-numbered) with subsequent sequence checks and follow up of receipt of suppliers' credit notes.
At intervals, a listing of unfulfilled orders should be made and investigated.
Invoices should be checked for arithmetical accuracy, pricing, correct treatment of VAT and trade discount, and agreement with order and goods-in records. These checks should be acknowledged by the performer preferably on spaces marked by a rubber stamp on the invoices.
Invoices should have consecutive numbers put on them and batches should be pre-listed.
Totals of entries in the invoice register or daybook should be regularly checked with the pre-lists.
Responsibility for purchase ledger entries should be vested in personnel separate from personnel responsible for ordering, receipt of goods and the invoice register.
The purchase ledger should be subject to frequent reconciliation in total by or be checked by an independent senior official.
Ledger, account balances should be regularly compared with suppliers' statements of account.
All goods and service procurement should be controlled by budgetary techniques. Orders should only be placed that are within budget limits. There should be frequent comparisons of actual purchases with budgets and investigation into variances.
Cut off procedures at the year-end are essential.
A proper coding system is required for purchase of goods and services so that the correct nominal accounts are debited.

Explain three basic steps or Sampling process i.e., designing, selection and evaluation of samples in detail.

DESIGNING

The auditor, in considering a particular population, has to consider how to obtain assurance about it. Sampling may be the solution. Factors which may be taken into account in considering whether or not to sample include:

Materiality. Petty cash expenditure may be so small that no conceivable error may affect the true and fair view of the accounts as a whole.
The number of items in the population. If these are few (e.g. land and buildings), a hundred per cent check may be economic.
Reliability of other forms of evidence ‑ analytical review (e.g. wages relate closely to number of employees, budgets, previous years, etc.) ‑ proof in total (VAT calculations). If other evidence is very strong, then a detailed check of a population (100% or a sample) may be unnecessary.
Cost and time considerations can be relevant in choosing between evidence seeking methods.
A combination of evidence seeking methods is often the optimal solution.

STAGES

Audit objectives. Why is this test being carried out? What contribution does it make to the overall assessment of true and fair view?
The population. The population has to be defined precisely. This may be all sales rather than all sales invoices.
The sampling unit. Note that in compliance testing it is the operation of the control on a transaction not the transaction, which is the sampling unit.
The definition of error in substantive tests. In stock calculations, an error of greater than Rs.1 only may constitute an error for this purpose.
The definition of deviation in compliance tests. The deviation may be any failure to carry out a control procedure or it may be a partial failure.
The assurance required. This is a function of the other sources of evidence available. The tolerable error or deviation rate. This is related to materiality.
The expected error deviation rate. This is a factor, which is not intuitively expected by students. In fact, errors increase the impreciseness of conclusions drawn from sampling and larger sample sizes are required if there are many errors.
Stratification. It may be desirable to stratify the population into sub‑populations and sample them separately or in some cases, such as high value items, do a hundred per cent check.
Selection of the items to be tested.
Testing the items.
Evaluating the results. This should also be done in stages: Analyze the errors/ deviations detected in relation to the planning definitions.
Statistical and other sampling methods
Use the errors/deviations detected to estimate the total error in the population. This is called projection of the errors from the sample to the population.
Assess the risk of an incorrect solution. This will be related to the amount of projection of error compared with the tolerable error and the availability of alternative evidence.

JUDGEMENT SAMPLING - SELECTION & EVALUATION

In auditing, a sample should be:

Random ‑ a random sample is one where each item of the population has an equal (or specified) chance of being selected. Statistical inferences may not be valid unless the sample is random.
Representative ‑ the sample should be representative of the differing items in the whole population. For example, it should contain a similar proportion of high and low value items to the population (e.g. all the debtors).
Protective ‑ protective, that is, of the auditor. More intensive auditing should occur on high value items known to be high risk.
Unpredictable ‑ client should not be able to know or guess which, items will be examined.
Selecting a sample of appropriate size on the basis of the, auditor's judgment of what is desirable. This approach has some advantages:
The approach has been used for many years. It is well understood and refined by experience.
The auditor can bring his judgment and expertise into play. Some auditors seem to have a sixth sense.
No special knowledge of statistics is required.
No time is spent on playing with ~ mathematics. All the audit time is spent on auditing.

There are some disadvantages:

It is unscientific.
It is wasteful; usually sample sizes are too large.
No quantitative results are obtained.
Personal bias in the selection of samples is unavoidable.
There is no real logic to the selection of the sample or its size.
The sample selection can be slanted to the auditors needs e.g. selection of items near the year-end to help with cut‑off evaluation.
The conclusions; reached on the evidence from samples is usually vague ‑ a feeling of 'it seems OK' or of vague disquiet.

Overall, judgment sampling is still the preferred method by a majority of auditors. Partly this can be defended on the grounds that the auditor is weighing several strands of evidence (internal control, business background, conversations with employees, subjective feelings, past experience, etc.) and is usually investigating several things at once (e.g. more than one control evidenced, on an invoice, proper books, internal control compliance and substantive testing of totals) so that the whole process is too complex to reduce to the simple formulations of the statistician. On the other hand, the statistician can reply that judgment sampling in the past worked well because very large samples were always taken. Today, the small samples required by economic logic require careful measuring of the risks attached and this can only be done by the use of statistical techniques.

Under what conditions Statistical sampling likely to could be prove most successful as an audit technique.

Drawing inferences about a large volume of data by an examination of a sample is a highly developed part of the discipline of statistics. It seems only common sense for the auditor to draw upon this body of knowledge in his own work. In practice, a high level of mathematical competence is required if valid conclusions are to be drawn from sample evidence. However most firms that use statistical sampling have drawn up complex plans, which can be operated by staff without statistical training. These involve the use of tables, graphs or computer methods.

The advantages of using statistical sampling are:

It is scientific.
It is defensible.
It provides precise mathematical statements about probabilities of being correct.
It is efficient ‑ overlarge sample sizes are not taken.
It tends to cause uniform standards among different audit firms.
It can be used by lower grade staff who would be unable, to apply the judgment needed by judgment sampling.
There are some disadvantages:
As a technique it is not always fully understood so that false conclusions may be drawn from the results.
Time is spent playing with mathematics which might better be spent on auditing.
Audit judgment takes second place to precise, mathematics.
It is inflexible.
Often several attributes of transactions or documents are tested at the same time. Statistics does not easily incorporate this.
Prove Most Successful
complex check of all the transactions and balances of a business is no longer required of an auditor. The reasons for this are:

Economic – the complete check would take so long that accounts would be ancient.
Time – the complete check would take so long that accounts would be ancient history before users saw them.
Practical – users of accounts do not expect or require 100% accuracy. Materiality is very important in accounting as well as auditing.
Psychological – a complete check would so bore the audit staff that their work would become ineffective and errors would be missed.
Fruitfulness – a complete check would not add much to the worth of figures if, as would be normal, few errors were discovered. The emphasis in auditing should be on the completeness of record and the true and fair view.

Explain the application of Stratified and cluster sampling in audit practice.

There are several methods available to an auditor for selecting items

STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratified this means dividing the population into sub populations (strata = layers) and is useful when parts of the population have higher than normal risk (e.g. high value items, overseas debtors). Frequently high value items form a small part of the population and are 100% checked and the remainder are sampled.

CLUSTER SAMPLING

Cluster sampling this is useful when data is maintained in clusters (groups or bunches) as wage records are kept in weeks or sales invoices in months. The idea is to select a, cluster randomly and then to examine all the items in the cluster chosen. The problem with this method is that this sample may not be representative.

Vouching has been described as “the essence of auditing” Amplify this statement and explain the techniques involved in vouching.

Vouching is the very essence of auditing. The whole success of the audit depends upon the intelligence and skill with which this part of the work is performed.

As the primary aim of auditing is to enable the auditor to say, “these accounts show a true and fair view” or, of course, to say that they do not. The primary objects of an auditing are to produce a report by the auditor of his opinion of the truth and fairness of financial statements so that any person reading and using them can have belief in them. Its subsidiary objects are to detect errors and fraud; to prevent errors and fraud by the deterrent and moral effect of the audit; to provide spin-off effects. The auditor will be able to assist his clients with accounting, systems, taxation, financial, and other problems.

And the vouching involves a consideration of each entry in the books and vouching the available evidence to support each entry. The evidence usually consists of documents and papers and should satisfy the auditor that:

Management authorized the transaction.
The transaction came within the aims and objects of the organization.
The transaction was correctly and adequately described by the entry in the books.
The entry is correctly incorporated in the final accounts.

Therefore, it is evident that vouching provides the examination of every business transaction with its supporting documentary evidence, the checking of which enables the auditor to satisfy himself that the transaction is in order; has been properly authorized and has been correctly allocated and entered in the book.

TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN VOUCHING

The auditor should examine the books in which the purchase invoices are recorded and the file of purchase invoices. Each invoice will be examined and the following points must be borne in mind:

The invoice should be addressed to the firm
It should at least appear to be an authentic invoice from the supplier
The goods should be of a nature relating to the business carried on
The invoice should bear the signature or initials of the clerk deputed to check them
The invoice should have attached to it a docket signed by the gate-keeper acknowledging receipt of the goods or bear reference to a goods inwards book or some other evidence that the goods have actually been received.
The entry should be extended into the correct column in the purchase daybook or be otherwise correctly coded so that it ends up in the right place in the final accounts. Particular attention should be paid to goods of a capital nature.
The detail relating to VAT and discounts should also be checked.
Calculations and extensions should be checked.
The date should fall in the accounting period.
If the invoice date and the date of supply of the goods or services fall in different periods, the auditor must see that the correct treatment has been given to the item in the final accounts.

Explain how your would vouch the Following

Recovery of Bad Debts Written Off

In vouching audit it is ensured that all bad debts should only be written off after due investigation and acknowledged authorization by senior management. For this purpose the following procedure is adopted:

To see the yearly ageing schedule of accounts receivable.
Past history of recovery from the debtors.
The period of credit allowed and taken
Previous provisions of bad debts.
Correspondence with the relevant debtors.
Properly written off to the Profit and Loss Accounts

Refund of Insurance Premium made

This will be done in the following way:
Examine the actual policy to ascertain its total premium
Check up the demand note of insurance company
See the official receipt of the insurance company
Actual payment made to the insurance company
Is any refund was due? On what basis
Receipt of refund paid.

Discounted Bill Dishonored

It is required to examine if dishonored bills are dishonored:

Accounts of bills receivables
Discounting of the bill
Presenting of bill in the bank
Serving of a notice
Bank statement; or
Receipt from the Notary public.

Distinguish between a positive and negative confirmation of accounts receivable and state the circumstances when each could be used.

A practice that is becoming very common in the verification of debtors is to circularize the debtors or some of them for direct confirmation. The advantages of this technique are:

Direct external evidence is available for the existence and ownership of an asset.
It provides confirmation of the effectiveness of the system of internal control.
It assists in the auditor's evaluation of cut‑off procedures.
It provides evidence of items in dispute.

There are two methods, which can also be used together:

Negative

The customer is asked to communicate only if he does not agree the balance. This method is mostly where internal control is very strong.

Positive

Customer is asked to reply whether he agrees the balance or not or is asked to supply the balance himself. This method is used where there is:

Weak internal control.
Suspicion of irregularities.
Numerous bookkeeping errors.

The approach is as follows:

Obtain the co‑operation of the client ‑ only he can ask third parties to divulge information.
Select method ‑ positive, negative, or a combination of the two.
Select a sample. All customers can be circularized but this is unusual.
Do not omit ‑ Nil balances - Credit balances - Accounts written off in the period.
Give weight to overdue or disputed balances.
Use stratified samples, e.g. all large balances and only some small ones.
The letter should be from the client.
It should request a reply direct to the auditor.
It may contain a stamped, addressed, envelope or a pre‑paid reply envelope.
It must be dispatched by the auditor.
Receive and evaluate replies.
Follow up when replies are not received. This is the major problem.
Circularization is sometimes carried out at dates other than the year-end. This will occur only when internal control is very strong.

Discuss the specific points which you will keep in view during verification of the following:

DEFERRED COST

As the deferred cost is a heavy expenditure in the nature of revenue incurred and the benefit of which is likely to extend beyond the financial year in which it takes place. For verification purposes, it is verify that this is temporarily capitalized and to be spread equally over number of years for which it is anticipated that benefit would be reaped by the business.

POST BALANCE SHEET EVENTS

Event occurring after the date of the balance sheet may assist in the assessment of the position, as it existed on that date in respect of some of the item appearing in the balance sheet. These are stated as under:

Liabilities – to determine the amount of contingent liabilities, etc.
Provision for taxation – for its correctly calculation.
Fixed assets – for showing settled amount.
Debtors – to determine the correct amount and accounting it.
Stock-in-trade – to establish the realizable value.

INVESTMENTS

Before making any investment, it is required to take proper approval of the authority that should be within the objectives provided in the Memorandum of Association. To verify the investments, the following work is carried out:
Investments certificates are in the name of owners, and their value is up to investment and comparing it with its ledger.
Checking the market value with the quotation list at the date of the balance sheet.
Scrutinize each individual investment account to ensure that all interest has either been received or accrued in books.
In case of the limited companies, enquire into the question of dividend income.
Any amount of uncalled capital relating to shares held as investments and give a foot-note of it in the balance sheet.
Enquire into the speculative transaction with particular reference to short-term purchases and sales.

How would you ascertain the adequacy of the provision for doubtful debts in the accounts of a large manufacturing concern?

The valuation of debtors is really a consideration of the adequacy of the provision for bad and doubtful debts. The auditor should consider the following matters:

The adequacy of the system of internal control relating to the approval of credit and following up of poor payers.
The period of credit allowed and taken.
Whether balances have been settled by the date of the audit.
Whether an account is made up of specific items or not.
Whether an account is within the maximum credit approved.
Reports on each debtor from collectors, trade associations, etc.
Present value and reliability of securities, if any, lodged as collateral.
Questions of set‑off.
The state of legal proceedings and the legal status of the debtor eg in liquidation or bankruptcy.
Effect, if any, of the Statute of Limitations.
Comparison of debtors to sales with comparison of the ratio with those of previous periods and those achieved by other companies.
Evidence of any debt in dispute e.g. for non-delivery, breakages, poor quality etc.

Note that:

Debts, which are considered irrecoverable, should be written off to the profit and loss account.
Provisions for doubtful debts should be set up against debts, which are considered doubtful.

Some companies make round‑sum or percentage provisions against doubtful debts. This practice is generally unacceptable to an auditor unless based on good statistical evidence, which may come from past experience or may come from data about other similar undertakings which is obtainable from trade associations or which is publicly available.

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Auditing Solved Assignment